The modern history of India begins with the decline of the Mughal Empire after Aurangzeb's death in 1707. The British East India Company gradually established control through key victories like the Battle of Plassey in 1757, gaining administrative rights and implementing exploitative economic policies that would shape colonial India for the next two centuries.
The first independence movements began with the 1857 Sepoy Mutiny, led by figures like Mangal Pandey and Rani Lakshmibai. This revolt, though unsuccessful, sparked nationalist consciousness. The Indian National Congress, founded in 1885, initially adopted moderate approaches through petitions and constitutional methods. However, events like the 1905 Partition of Bengal led to the rise of extremist leaders who advocated direct action and boycott movements, transforming individual resistance into organized political action.
Gandhi's revolutionary methods transformed India's independence movement through the philosophy of Satyagraha, meaning truth-force. His major campaigns included the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1920-22, the historic Salt March of 1930 where he walked 240 miles to Dandi, and the Quit India Movement of 1942. These non-violent resistance methods mobilized millions of Indians, challenged British authority while maintaining moral superiority, and inspired liberation movements worldwide.
The partition and independence of 1947 marked both triumph and tragedy. Political negotiations through the Cabinet Mission Plan and Mountbatten Plan involved key figures like Nehru, Jinnah, Gandhi, and Lord Mountbatten. Religious tensions culminated in the creation of India and Pakistan on August 15, 1947. However, this achievement came at an enormous human cost with 14 million people displaced, 1 to 2 million casualties, and widespread communal violence during mass migration between the newly formed nations.
Post-independence India faced enormous challenges including refugee rehabilitation, integration of 562 princely states, and economic reconstruction. Nehru's vision of democratic socialism led to the implementation of Five-Year Plans starting in 1951, focusing on industrial development and scientific progress. The Green Revolution of the 1960s addressed food security, while the Non-Aligned Movement positioned India as a leader among developing nations during the Cold War, establishing foundations for modern India's growth trajectory.