- Genes and its inheritance, Structure of DNA, - Protein synthesis, DNA replication - Mutation, Punnett square, Application of genetics - Human genome project - Theory of Evolution (Natural selection, adaptation, variation)

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Genes are segments of DNA that contain instructions for making proteins. They are inherited from parents to offspring, determining traits like eye color, height, and disease susceptibility. Each gene occupies a specific location on a chromosome and exists in different versions called alleles. DNA has a double helix structure discovered by Watson and Crick. It consists of two antiparallel strands connected by hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs. Adenine pairs with Thymine, and Guanine pairs with Cytosine. The backbone is made of sugar and phosphate groups, while the bases store genetic information. Protein synthesis is the process by which cells make proteins from genetic instructions. It involves two key steps: transcription, where DNA is copied into messenger RNA in the nucleus, and translation, where ribosomes read the mRNA code and assemble amino acids into proteins using transfer RNA molecules. DNA replication is semiconservative, meaning each new DNA molecule contains one original and one new strand. This ensures genetic information is accurately passed to daughter cells. Punnett squares are tools used to predict the probability of traits in offspring by crossing parental genotypes, showing all possible genetic combinations. Evolution by natural selection is the process by which organisms with advantageous traits survive and reproduce more successfully than others. Environmental pressures select for beneficial variations, leading to changes in populations over time. This mechanism explains the diversity of life and adaptation to different environments throughout Earth's history.