Computer chips are the heart of modern electronics. They are manufactured through an incredibly precise and complex process that transforms pure silicon into sophisticated integrated circuits. This process involves multiple stages including design, wafer fabrication, testing, and packaging.
The first step in chip manufacturing is creating silicon wafers. Pure silicon is melted and grown into large cylindrical ingots through a crystal growth process. These ingots are then sliced into extremely thin wafers, typically 300 micrometers thick, and polished to achieve a mirror-like surface finish essential for the fabrication process.
Photolithography is the core fabrication process that creates circuit patterns on the wafer. A light-sensitive photoresist is applied to the wafer surface. UV light shines through a photomask containing the circuit pattern, exposing specific areas. The exposed photoresist is then developed and removed, creating a pattern that guides subsequent etching and material deposition steps.
The fabrication process involves building multiple layers on the wafer. Each layer contains different components like transistors, logic gates, metal interconnects, and insulation materials. This process can involve dozens of layers built through repeated photolithography, etching, and deposition steps. After fabrication, each individual chip on the wafer is tested using electrical probes to identify which chips function correctly before proceeding to packaging.
The final manufacturing steps involve packaging and testing. The wafer is diced into individual chips called dies. Each working die is mounted on a substrate and connected to external pins through wire bonding. The assembly is then encapsulated in a protective plastic or ceramic package. Finally, each packaged chip undergoes comprehensive electrical testing to ensure it meets specifications before being shipped to device manufacturers.